The refrain “In those days there was no king in Israel” (Judg 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25) serves as a literary and theological key to the book’s epilogue. However, its precise meaning and significance remain debated. Some view it as pro-monarchical, i.e., a lament that underscores Israel’s need for a king. Others argue for an anti-monarchical view, seeing it as a critique of human kingship. Both approaches, however, prove inadequate. The refrain is neither a simple endorsement of monarchy nor a sheer rejection of it. Rather, it presents a both-and vision of kingship: Israel requires a human ruler, but one who governs under Yhwh’s ultimate authority.
Through inner-biblical exegesis and a sequential reading of the Deuteronomistic History, this study demonstrates that the refrain functions not merely as a lament for political instability but as a theological critique of Israel’s failure to recognize divine sovereignty, which led to religious corruption and social fragmentation. The connection between Deuteronomy and Judges is central to this reading. Deuteronomy 12.00 reflects a time when Israel’s worship was not centralized, as the people worshiped wherever seemed right in their own eyes. At the same time, it anticipates a future when such noncentralized worship would no longer be acceptable. Deuteronomy 17.00 then sets forth an idealized depiction of kingship in which Israel’s future kings must be subject to Torah. The book of Judges, by contrast, narrates Israel’s decline into spiritual and political chaos and disorder, culminating in the refrain that everyone did what was right in their own eyes (Judg 17:6; 21:25). The solution, however, is not to be found simply in the establishment of monarchy but the right kind of monarchy. Only a righteous king who aligns with Yhwh’s rule can offer hope. This trajectory comes into full view in 2.00 Samuel 1–6, where David restores Israel’s unity, brings the nation into political stability, and centralizes worship. In doing so, David fulfilled the theocratic ideal envisioned in Deuteronomy. Later, the books of Samuel and Kings continue this pattern, evaluating rulers based on whether they did what was right or evil in Yhwh’s eyes, particularly within the Davidic dynasty.
By reframing the refrain’s role and significance in Judges, this paper advances a more theologically coherent reading of biblical kingship, bridging Old Testament theology, the Deuteronomistic History, and the theological trajectory of kingship in the Hebrew Bible. While some have suggested that the refrain may carry such a dual meaning, alluding to the theocratic ideal in Deuteronomy 17, in which the human king serves as Yhwh’s vice-regent (Chisholm 2013, 453), this perspective has yet to be fully developed. Rather than leaving it as a mere possibility, this study fully substantiates and expands this perspective through detailed textual analysis. It demonstrates that the refrain does not simply lament the absence of a human king but anticipates a monarchy that functions as an extension of Yhwh’s rule, restoring covenantal faithfulness and divine order.