In this paper, I argue that divine-breath imagery in both Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian thought is broader than John C. Poirier portrays it to be, and consequently that God’s breath can depict both origination and speaking, thus supporting an inspirationist understanding of θεόπνευστος in 2 Timothy 3:16. Examining the background imagery evoked by θεόπνευστος is necessary in light of Poirier’s book The Invention of the Inspired Text, where he rejects the typical inspirationist meaning of θεόπνευστος as a later invention by Origen. Instead, he argues for the meaning “life-giving” based on the Old Testament’s conception of God’s breath (e.g., Gen 2:7). He also dismisses the association of divine breath as speech as a “minor use of breath” in the Old Testament. While Poirier is right that “life-giving” is a valid association for God’s breath, his argument suffers from two main weaknesses: (1) he wrongly limits his survey of the imagery to a Judeo-Christian background, and (2) he presents a univocal background imagery that unnecessarily excludes other valid associations. In contrast, I will seek to demonstrate from both Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian writings that divine breath could be used to depict the source or origin of something and can even be used to depict speaking. Both of these connections support an inspirationist understanding of θεόπνευστος such that Scripture comes from God and is spoken by God. In my analysis of the background imagery, I also interact with Benjamin B. Warfield’s understanding of θεόπνευστος and seek to refine his arguments in light of Poirier’s critiques. This study is important because the background imagery evoked by θεόπνευστος is the starting point for determining the word’s meaning. How scholars understand the background imagery will directly shape their interpretation of θεόπνευστος in 2 Timothy 3:16 and the relevant extra-biblical passages.
To make my argument, I begin by summarizing Warfield and Poirier’s understanding of divine breath imagery as representatives for each side. Then, because θεόπνευστος occurs in some early Greco-Roman writings, I survey a Hellenistic understanding of divine breath to show that life-giving was not a common association. Next, I survey the Old Testament and Second Temple Jewish literature to show the wide range of associations made with divine breath and to establish that divine breath as origination and speech are valid categories. Finally, I examine how the New Testament used breath imagery and test Poirier’s vivificationist view against other New Testament passages.